August 2007: Some notable Royal Women in history

[norwegianne]

Summer holiday is coming to a close - and I certainly hope you've had better weather than me. Rain, rain, and more rain… it is hardly the stuff the summers in our imaginations are made of, is it?

It has been a summer of royal events, even if July is technically the summer holiday month in northern Europe. The Christening of Princess Isabella of Denmark, with Mathilde of Belgium and Alexia of Greece and Denmark as royal sponsors, and many other royals in attendance. The birthday celebrations of Queen Sonja of Norway with the following cruise. Crown Princess Victoria turning 30. Infanta Sofia of Spain's christening, the national day in Belgium, the Red Cross ball in Monaco… there have been a lot of events for us to follow.

The Norwegian royal family on July 4th - in Stavanger.

We have chosen to have royal women in history as a subject of this newsletter, and have selected a few. Doubtless - we could have created a 10-page-long thread, (if not several) if we were to include everybody, so we have chosen some. If there's someone special that we've missed - there's always Royal ChitChat for starting a new thread about the subject.

Here's to having a nice August,
Avalon, Norwegianne & Zonk

[norwegianne]

What happened in July?


Birthdays
01.07 - Birthday of Charles Armstrong-Jones (1999)
03.07 - Birthday of Prince Maximilian, Margrave of Baden (1933)
03.07 - Birthday of Princess Marie Louise of Baden (1969)
04.07 - Birthday of Prince Michael of Kent (1942)
04.07 - Birthday of Princess Chulabhorn of Thailand (1957)
04.07 - Birthday of Queen Sonja of Norway (1937)
07.07 - Birthday of Prince Nicholas of Montenegro (1944)
09.07 - Birthday of Princess Alexia of Greece and Denmark (1965)
11.07 - Birthday of Prince Kyrill, Prince of Preslay (1964)
11.07 - Birthday of Prince Jean-Christophe Napoleon (1986)
12.07 - Birthday of Count Jefferson von Pfeil und Klein-Ellguth (1967)
14.07 - Birthday of Crown Princess Victoria of Sweden (1977)
15.07 - Birthday of Camille Gottlieb (1998)
15.07 - Birthday of Prince Lukas of Bulgaria (1997)
15.07 - Birthday of Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah of Brunei (1946)
16.07 - Birthday of Princess Marie of Liechtenstein (1975)
17.07 - Birthday of Camilla, The Duchess of Cornwall (1947)
17.07 - Birthday of Crown Prince Alexander (1945)
17.07 - Birthday of Felipe Juan Froilan de Marichilar y Borbon (1998)
18.07 - Birthday of Muna Juma of Jordan (1996)
18.07 - Birthday of Prince Alexander of Belgium (1942)
19.07 - Birthday of Prince Ernst-August Jr. of Hannover (1983)
20.07 - Birthday of Crown Prince Haakon of Norway (1973)
20.07 - Birthday of Princess Alexandra of Hannover (1999)
22.07 - Birthday of Prince Felix of Denmark (2002)
23.07 - Birthday of Princess Georgina Maximiliane Tatjana Maria of Liechtenstein (2005)
24.07 - Birthday of Princess Sarvath of Jordan (1947)
25.07 - Birthday of Lord Nicholas Windsor (1970)
25.07 - Birthday of Princess Maria Olympia of Greece and Denmark (1996)
27.07 - Birthday of Archduke Bartholomeus of Austria (2006)
27.07 - Birthday of Princess Mafalda-Ceceilia of Bulgaria (1994)
28.07 - Birthday of Crown Prinxe Vajiralongkorn of Thailand (1952)
28.07 - Birthday of Samuel Chatto (1996)
30.07 - Birthday of Infanta Maria del Pilar (1936)
30.07 - Birthday of Young Crown Prince Hridayendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev of Nepal (2002)
30.07 - Birthday of Carlos Morales y de Grecia (2005)
31.07 - Birthday of Marina Ogilvy (1966)
31.07 - Birthday of Prince Johann Georg of Hohenzollern (1932)

27.07 - Death Anniversary of Shahanshah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi (1980)
31.07 - Death Anniversary of King Baudouin of Belgium (1993)

Weddings and Anniversaries
21.07.1960 - Wedding Anniversary of Prince Carl, Duke of Wurtemberg and Princess Diane of Orleans
01.07.1995 – Wedding Anniversary of Crown Prince Pavlos of Greece and Marie Chantal Miller
02.07.2005 – Wedding Anniversary of Archduke Maximilian of Austria and Maya Askari
02.07.1959 – Wedding Anniversary of King Albert II of Belgium and Donna Paola Ruffo di Calabria
03.07.1993 – Wedding Anniversary of Prince Alois of Liechtenstein and Duchess Sophie of Bavaria
04.07.1999 – Wedding Anniversary of Countess Clarissa zu Toerring-Jettenbach and Prince Tassilo von Ratibor-Corvey
08.07.2000 – Wedding Anniversary of Prince Bernhard van Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven & Annette Sekreve
09.07.2005 – Wedding Anniversary of Princess Alexandra zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Sayn and Count Stefano Hunyady von Kethily
09.07.1999 – Wedding Anniversary of Princess Alexia of Greece and Denmark & Carlos Morales Quintana
12.07.2002 - Wedding Anniversary of King Mohammed VI of Morocco and Salma Bennani
17.07.1999 – Wedding Anniversary of Prince Constantin of Liechtenstein and Countess Marie Kalnoky
30.07.1967 - Wedding Anniversary of Reigning Prince Hans Adam II of Liechtenstein and Countess Marie Kinsky

State Visits/Official Visits
12.07 - Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip to visit Belgium

Special Events
01.07 - Concert For Diana - Preparations for the 10th Anniversary Concert and Memorial Service
04.07 - 70th Birthday Celebrations of Queen Sonja
14.07 - Crown Princess Victoria turns 30
21.07 National Day of Belgium
27.07 - Red Cross Ball - July 27th, 2007

Other Events of Note
01.07 - Christening of Princess Isabella of Denmark
15.07 - Christening of Infanta Sofía of Spain

[norwegianne]

What will happen in August?

Birthdays
03.08 Birthday of Charlotte Casiraghi (1986)
03.08 Birthday of Princess Christina Mrs Magnuson (1943)
03.08 Birthday of Prince Louis of Luxembourg (1986)
05.08 Birthday of Princess Irene of the Netherlands (1939)
06.08 Birthday of Columbus Taylor (1994)
08.08 Birthday of Princess Beatrice of York (1988)
11.08 Birthday of Princess Mabel van Oranje-Nassau (1960)
12.08 Birthday of Achileas Andreas, Prince of Greece and Denmark (2000)
12.08 Birthday of Princess Sarah of Jordan (1978)
12.08 Birthday of Queen Sirikit of Thailand (1932)
13.08 Birthday of Princess Rahma of Jordan (1969)
15.08 Birthday of The Princess Royal (1950)
16.08 Birthday of Duke Paul-Vladimir of Oldenburg (1969)
16.08 Birthday of Princess Luisa of Savoy (2006)
16.08 Birthday of Countess Ingrid Alexandra Irma Astrid Benedikte von Pfeil und Klein-Ellguth (2003)
19.08 Birthday of The Duchess of Anhalt (1961)
19.08 Birthday of Prince Philipp Erasmus of Liechtenstein (1946)
19.08 Birthday of Crown Princess Mette-Marit of Norway (1973)
20.08 Birthday of Prince Gabriel of Belgium (2003)
21.08 Birthday of King Mohammed VI of Morocco (1963)
23.08 Birthday of Queen Noor of Jordan (1951)
24.08 Birthday of Alexandre Eric Stéphane Coste (2003)
26.08 Birthday of Prince Richard, the Duke of Gloucester (1944)
26.08 Birthday of Princess Maria-Laura of Belgium, Archduchess of Austria-Este (1988)
28.08 Birthday of Prince Nikolai of Denmark (1999)
30.08 Birthday of Princess Lilian, the Duchess of Halland (1915)
30.08 Birthday of Former Queen Anne-Marie of Greece (born Princess of Denmark) (1946)
31.08 Birthday of Queen Rania of Jordan (1970)

Weddings and Wedding Anniversaries
04.08 Prince Faisal and Princess Aliya of Jordan (1987)
06.08 Prince Manuel of Bavaria and Princess Anna zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg (2005)
09.08 Duchess Fleur of Wurttemberg and Count Moritz von Goess (2003)
13.08 Princess Xenia of Hohenlohe-Langenburg and Max Soltmann (2005)
25.08 Crown Prince Haakon of Norway & Mette-Marit Tjessem Høiby (2001)
27.08 Prince Pieter Christiaan of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven and Anita Theodora van Eijk (2005)
27.08 Lady Huda Bahaaul Bulqiah to Muhammad Suhaimi - August 2006 (2006)
29.08 King Harald of Norway and Sonja Haraldsen (1968)

30.08 Prince Ferdinand-Maximilian zu Ysenburg und Büdingen & Sophie De Bois (2003)

Special Events
04.08 - http://www.theroyalforums.com/forums...7-a-13379.html
31.08 10th anniversary of the death of Diana, Princess of Wales. (1997) - Memorial service.

Other Events of Note
07.08 Anniversary of Enthronement Ceremony of King Albert II of Belgium (1993)

[norwegianne]

In royal history, it has usually been focus on the males - and the sole purpose of the queens and princesses have been to birth the heir to the throne, and marry well so that their countries may live in peaceful alliances with other countries - and other than that, be as inconspicuous as possible. This month, the Newsletter team is putting focus on some women who may have gone beyond the expectations, in some way or other. It is a limited number we have chosen, and while we're certain that there should be several more included, time as well as summer holidays put a stop to it.

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Margrete I (Margaret I) – When Margrete Valdemarsdatter was born in 1353 – one couldn’t possibly have foreseen how her life would impact the way of life in Scandinavia for a long time to come. Certainly, a princess was meant to marry well – and she fulfilled that aspect by being married off as a ten-year-old, to the king of Norway. A queen was meant to give her husband and her country an heir, and she fulfilled that, when she at seventeen, gave birth to a boy, Olav/Oluf. Her goal in life had been attained. However, as the sole surviving child of Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark upon his death in 1375 – she managed to get her five-year-old son elected King of Denmark. As Olav was underage, his mother was to be regent until her son came of age. When her husband, Håkon VI of Norway, passed away – Olav inherited the throne, Norway and Denmark were united in a personal union under the same king – with Margrete as the regent. When Olav passed away in 1387, Margrete took into her care her sister’s nephew. She was elected regent in Denmark in 1387, and in Norway in 1388. Eventually, she would also be elected regent of Sweden – hence she controlled an area that spanned from today’s Finland in the east to Greenland in the west. In 1396, she had her sister’s nephew hailed as king in Kalmar, and formed a formal union between the three countries, but while she might have turned over the visible crown – she was still the one pulling the strings until her death in 1412. The Kalmar Union lasted for over 100 years, but would continue to make a mark on Scandinavian society for a long time to come.

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Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil - She was heir to the throne of Brazil (with the title of Princess Imperial) during the last decades of the reign of her father Pedro II of Brazil.

Isabel was regent of the empire three times while her father traveled abroad. A liberal, the princess joined those who wanted the slavery abolished. She supported young politicians and artists, although many of them were part of the republican movement that started to be created. She used to pay with her own money so that slaves would be free.

On June 30th, 1887 Isabel was acting as regent for the third time. She then took advantage of an incident and fired the whole ministry, that was against the abolition. The road was open for the total abolition.

On Sunday, May 13th, 1888, the final voting for the total abolition was taking place. Isabel was so sure of the victory that she came down from Petropolis to wait for the results at the Imperial Palace. And then, with a golden feather, specially designed for the occasion, Isabel signed the final abolition of slavery edict (the "Lei Áurea", Golden Law, effectively banning slavery), and because of that she was nicknamed the Redeemer. On September 28th, the Pope Leo XIII awarded her with the "Golden Rose".

With a very innovative thought for her time, Isabel was a partisan of modern ideas, like the female vote and the agrarian reformation. Recently discovered documents showed that the princess thought about compensating the ex-slaves with Mauá Bank's resources.

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Isabella of Castile - She was Queen regnant of Castile and Leon. She and her husband, Ferdinand II of Aragon, laid the foundation for the political unification of Spain under their grandson, Carlos I of Spain.

Certainly one of the most important and best known actions that Isabella was responsible for was the authorization for the expedition of Christopher Columbus. She rejected his plans three times before changing her mind. His conditions (the position of Admiral; governorship for him and his descendants of lands to be discovered; and ten percent of the profits) were met. On August 3, his expedition departed. He returned the next year and presented his findings to the monarchs, bringing natives and gold under a hero's welcome. Spain entered a Golden Age of exploration and colonization.

In 1494, by the Treaty of Tordesillas, Isabella and Ferdinand divided the Earth, outside of Europe, with Portugal. Ferdinand and Isabella were strong leaders who worked to unify Spain physically as well. This was largely achieved after the conquest of Granada in 1492.

The birth of Isabella’s son in 1478 consolidated the political stability as it meant a clear line of succession for the Spanish throne. Isabella ensured long-term political stability in Spain by arranging strategic marriages for each of her five children. Her firstborn, a daughter named Isabella, married Alfonso of Portugal, forging important ties between these two neighbouring countries and hopefully ensuring peace and future alliance. Juana (the Mad), Isabella’s second daughter, married Philip the Handsome, the son of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I and later ruled Castile with him. She was the mother of Charles V. Isabella’s first and only son, Juan, married Margaret of Austria, maintaining ties with the Habsburg dynasty. He died leaving no children. Her fourth child, Maria, married Manuel I of Portugal, strengthening the link forged by her older sister’s marriage and was the mother of John III. Her fifth child, Catherine, first married Arthur Tudor, Prince of Wales, and, after his death, his younger brother Henry VIII, King of England and was mother to Queen Mary I.

[Avalon]

Queen Boudicca - When the Romans conquered southern England, they allowed Prasutagus, King of Iceni people, continue to rule. When he died, he left the Kingdom jointly to his daughters and the Roman Empire. Romans, unlike Britons accepted only male heirs. They used the chance to annexe the Kingdom. Boudicca united her people and led them against Romans. She successfully defeated them in many battles; however unorganized Britons were defeated in an open field. Preferring death to capture, Boudicca poisoned herself.

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Emma of Normandy - Emma was twice Queen Consort of England, first by marriage to King Ethelred and then to King Canute. Two of her sons, one by each husband, and two step-sons, also by each husband, were kings of England. Canute was of very high opinion of Emma and often asked her opinion on many political issues. Both of her husbands married her not only of affection, but also in an attempt to avert the aggression of Normandy. Her marriages created the England and Normandy connection, which reached its culmination under her great-nephew William the Conqueror.

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Empress Matilda - Matilda was the daughter of King Henry I of England. She married Henry V of Holy Roman Empire but he died soon. All other children of her father died in the wreck of the White Ship, leaving Matilda his only legitimate heir. Henry made Barons swear they'd accept her as a Queen. At the time Matilda was already married to Geoffrey of Anjou (nicknamed Plantagenet) and had 3 sons. However when Henry died, his nephew, Stephen of Blois usurped the throne. Years of Civil War followed. Although it eventually decided in Stephen's favour, his reign was troubled. Matilda's eldest son Henry became a successful leader and led military expedition against Stephen. This made the latter acknowledge Henry as his heir. Matilda was never crowned Queen but her son became King Henry II.

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Eleanor of Aquitaine - Eleanor was the heiress of the Dukedom of Aquitaine, the largest, richest and most cultured province of France, Queen Consort of both France and England, mother of Kings Richard III and John. Her father ensured Eleanor had the best education and she was considered not only the most beautiful, but also the most educated woman of her age. Following her father's death, she married Louis VII of France. Aquitaine was not merged with the Kingdom of France; Eleanor’s eldest son was to inherit it. She took part in the second Crusade (an unprecedented move for a woman). The crusade was a disaster, both the King and Queen only managed to escape (at some point, both were actually proclaimed death). By that time the marriage reached an all-time low and upon Eleanor’s request, the Pope annulled it. To avoid kidnap attempts, Eleonor sent envoys to Henry, Duke of Normandy (later Henry II) and asked him to come and marry her. They had 8 children, and Eleanor seemed untroubled by his many adulteries; she even took care of many of his illegitimate children. Eleanor joint her sons in the revolt against their father. She was arrested and spent the next 15 years imprisoned. During Henry's final years, Eleanor enjoyed greater freedom and they seemed to be on friendly terms. After his death, their son Richard became King. He spent most of the time out of the country, in military campaigns. Eleanor was left as Regent and fulfilled the role with great efficiency. She died aged 82 and outlived all her children but two.

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Marguerite of France - Three years after the death of his beloved wife Leonor, Edward I was still grieving. But he heard of the beauty of Blanche of France and decided to marry her at any cost. Philip IV of France agreed to give his sister to Edward on the condition of truce between two countries and the province of Gascony. Edward agreed but was fooled - Blanche was already engaged to Rudolph I of Bohemia. Philip offered his other sister, 11 years old Marguerite, as Edward's wife. Enraged Edward declared war on France but 5 years later he agreed to marry Marguerite. He was 60 and the bride was 16. Soon after the marriage, Edward started a campaign against Scotland and Marguerite decided to join him, which touched him greatly. Marguerite had a softening influence over the King - many escaped severe punishments due to her and the statement ‘Pardoned solely on the intercession of our dearest consort, Queen Marguerite of England’ appeared. However mismatched their union was, Edward and Marguerite were truly happy together. The King often said that his wife was a Pearl of a great price. Marguerite loved Edward so much that she decided to name their youngest daughter Leonor, in honour of his beloved first wife. After his death she refused to remarry, saying "when Edward died, all men died for me". She used her immense dowry for charity. Marguerite was one of the most beloved Queens of England and her funerals were attended by an unprecedented number of people. Her step-children all said ‘we lost a sister and dearest friend no one can replace’.

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[Avalon]

Isabella of France – Isabella, nicknamed the She-Wolf of France, was the only daughter of Philip IV of France and married Edward II of England. Although they had 4 children, he paid more attention on his male favourites and the marriage was disastrous. When Isabella's brother seized Edward's French possessions, she returned to France, originally as a delegate. However once there, she gathered an army to oppose Edward. Many English Barons were angered by the King, and especially his favourites and it was not difficult for Isabella to overthrow Edward II without one battle; he was sent to prison and forced to abdicate in favour of his son. Since Edward III was only 14, Isabella and her lover Mortimer reigned under his name. Edward II died in prison (presumably killed). According to legend, Isabella sent a letter to guards, which, depending where the comma was inserted, could either encourage them to kill the King, or warn them against it. But no such letter is known to have existed. When Edward III became of age, he executed Mortimer for treason. Contrary to legend, Isabella didn't spend the remaining days in prison and enjoyed comfortable life. Isabella was partly responsible for the start of 100 years war - her son, Edward, was the only surviving male grandchild of King Philip IV and claimed the French Throne.

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Catherine Valois - Catherine was the daughter of Charles VI of France and Isabeau of Bavaria. Upon her marriage to Henry V of England, he regained control over Aquitaine and Normandy, acted as regent during Charles VI lifetime and won the right to succeed Charles upon his death Had all the points of the treaty been fulfilled, England and France would be united under the reign of Henry VI. But Henry V died 2 years after the marriage, leaving Catherine with new-born son. She was not trusted as a Frenchwoman and was not allowed to take part in her son’s education. In fact, she was hardly ever allowed to see him. Around the time she met Owen Tudor. Although she is usually referred to as his wife, many scholars argue whether they were married (Catherine was forbidden to remarry). She was given the Wallingford castle and disappeared from the court life. Catherine and Owen had two children. Catherine died aged 36, but although she died young, she left her visible trace in history - her eldest son Henry was the King of England, her second son Edmund was the father of future Henry VII, and her third son Jasper married Katherine Woodville, Elizabeth Woodville's sister.

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Elizabeth Woodville - Elizabeth was considered one of the leading beauties in England, with 'heavy-lidded eyes like those of a dragon'. She was a young widow with two sons, when King Edward IV noticed her. The King had many mistresses but Elizabeth refused to become one. The king was smitten and he secretly married her. The marriage took many by surprise but it was a happy union and by the time the King died, they had 10 children, including 2 sons. After the King’s death Prince Edward (Edward V) was proclaimed King and was transformed to the Tower with his brother Richard, to prepare for the coronation. However Elizabeth and Edward’s marriage was proclaimed unlawful, because a Bishop testified that before marrying Elizabeth, Edward IV had already promised to marry another Lady (a blinding contract at the time). Thus, all 10 children of Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville were proclaimed illegitimate and Edward IV's brother Richard was proclaimed a King. The Princes in the Tower were never seen again and werw believed to be dead. Elizabeth, now Dame Elizabeth Grey, and her daughters were in sanctuary, fearing for their safety. Soon however, Henry Tudor challenged and subsequently defeated Richard in the Battle of Bosworth and was proclaimed King Henry VII. His mother, Margaret Beaufort, and Elizabeth Woodville arranged the marriage of Henry and Elizabeth York (the Yorkist heir to the throne), thus cementing his rights to the throne. Elizabeth Woodville was given the title of Queen Dowager. A couple of years later she took part in the Lambert rebellion against the King. Henry confiscated all her possessions and banished her to Bermondsey Abbey. In Later Elizabeth had one more chance to become Queen Consort – Henry VII offered her to marry newly widowed King James of Scotland; the latter was, however, soon killed in a battle. Devastated Elizabeth died soon after. Her simple funerals enraged many, who didn't think it was a good tribute for the Consort of Edward IV. Elizabeth is the direct ancestor of all future Monarchs of England and Great Britain, up to this day.

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Margaret Beaufort - Margaret was a key figure in the War of Roses and in the process of founding the Tudor dynasty. Through her mother's side, Margaret was decendant of John of Gaunt (3rd son of Edward III) and his mistress (following their marriage, their children were legitimized, although barred from inheriting the throne). Her fist husband was Edmund Tudor, half brother of King Henry VI (through Catherine of Valois, who married Owen Tudor after the death of Henry V). By the age of 13 she was a widow, with a new-born son, who had a lot of Royal blood, but no valid claims to the English throne. Margaret devoted greatest part of the following 20 years to bringing up and the educating her son Henry. Years later Margaret married Lord Stanley, one of the most loyal aids of King Richard, though this didn’t keep Margaret from plotting against Richard. She aided with Elizabeth Woodville and the two women planned their children's engagement. When Richard III learnt of that, he arrested Lord Stanley's eldest son and hold him as a captive, trying to ensure his loyalty. This only turned Stanley against the King. With Richard thwarted in the Battle of Bosworth, Stanley himself placed the Crown on Henry VII's head. Margaret cemented her son's rights to the throne by arranging his marriage with Elizabeth York, Yorkist claimant to the throne. She was now known as My Lady the King’s Mother. Margaret was an educated woman and wanted education for people and her later years were dedicated to this task. She founded several schools, including schools for general public. Lady Margaret Hall in Oxford University (first women's collage) was named after her, acknowledging the role she played to ensure the women can get proper education.

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Catherine of Aragon – Catherine was born to Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, rulers of Spain. Her marriage to Arthur, the eldest son of Henry VII, was to ensure the grounds of newly-founded Tudor dynasty and ties between England and Spain. They married when both were 15. However Arthur died only 3 months laterm(Catherine always maintained their marriage was not consummated because of their young age). Not wanting to lose ties with Spain, and Catherine’s dowry, Henry VII arranged her marriage with his younger son, Henry. The young people liked each other and for the next 18 years they led a happy life. Only one thing was on the way of their happiness – lack of male heirs. Henry and Catherine had 5 children, but only one of them, Princess Mary, survived. Since the Tudor dynasty was new, a male heir was essential. The country still remembered the horrours of the civil war, when the Barons denied Empress Matilda her Throne. When it became apparent Catherine was physically unfit to conceive again, Henry requested the Pope of the annulment of the marriage. The Pope’s refusal (or rather, lack of answer) set off a chain reaction that led Henry’s break with the Roman Catholic Church, his divorce from Catherine, proclamation that Princess Mary was illegitimate and Henry’s subsequent marriage to Anne Boleyn. Henry married for 4 more times, but Catherine didn’t live to see that. She died soon before Anne Boleyn was to be executed, maintaining till the last day of her life her marriage and especially fiercely fighting over the issue of Princess Mary’s legitimacy. In her later years, Catherine lived in very poor conditions in a remote Castle and was not even allowed to see her daughter in the hope she would give up and acknowledge the annulment. Catherine died of cancer though at the time many believed that Queen Anne had poisoned her. Henry didn’t attend the funerals, nor did he allow Princess Mary to go. Catherine’s daughter did eventually become Queen, although she reigned only for 5 unhappy years.

[Avalon]

Anne Boleyn – Anne was from a powerful Norfolk family and spent her earlier years serving in the household of Margaret of Austria, with whom she maintained close relationships throughout her life, and later, as lady-in-waiting to Queen Claude of France. Anne differed from the typical English beauty – she had dark skin and was thin, but many were impressed by her big, dark eyes and long, dark hair. Anne was known for her intelligence and her fashion sense and was a trendsetter. When Anne returned to England, her older sister Mary was Henry’s mistress. Henry was very impressed by the younger Boleyn girl. However Henry’s initial offer to become his mistress was rejected – Anne was known for being demure, yet keeping men at arm’s length. By the time Henry was already thinking of divorce, in order to secure male heirs. His infatuation with Anne speeded the process. But only after 7 years and break with Rome, the Archbishop of Canterbury divorced Henry and Catherine. Once Queen, Anne had unprecedented powers and is often called ‘the most powerful Queen Consort England ever had. During her coronation she was already visibly pregnant, but to Henry’s disappointment they had a girl. A miscarriage and still-born followed, by which time Henry was already enamored by Jane Seymour. Soon after the still-birth, Anne was accused of adultery and treason. The wish of the King was apparent for the Parliament, and Anne was convicted and executed. Her daughter, Elizabeth, was proclaimed illegitimate. It is largely accepted by scholars that Anne was not guilty of the charges. Anne might not have managed to be a Queen for a long time and she didn’t produce a son, but she gave birth to a girl that would eventually future Elizabeth I.

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Queen Mary I – As the only surviving child of Henry VIII and Queen Catherine, she was cherished by her parents. When Mary was 9, her father gave her a separate court, as well as many powers and privileges, normally only given to Prince of Wales. Her childhood was also marked by matrimonial plans – Henry was negotiating a possible match with French and Spanish Royal Houses. However when Catherine failed to produce a male heir, necessary for the newly-founded Tudor dynasty, Henry started divorce process and later married Anne Boleyn. Since her parents' marriage was annuled, Mary was proclaimed illegitimate. She refused to acknowledge the divorce and had to face many difficulties. Mary's life improved after Henry married Jane Seymour, who she was close to. Mary became godmother to her half-brother Edward but when Edward became King, the relationships between the two cooled. Mary was a loyal Catholic, Edward was no-less loyal Protestant. In case he would die childless, Edward didn’t want either Mary, or Elizabeth succeed him (in contrast with Henry VIII's will). Instead, he named Jane Grey as his heir. After his death it wasn’t difficult for Mary, who had support among people and the army, to take the throne. Jane was executed and Mary became first crowed Queen of England and her first Act of Parliament was validating her parents’ marriage. Her reign, however, was not a happy or successful one. Mary’s main goal was to bring the Catholic religion back. She prosecuted and executed numerous Protestants, for which she was nicknamed ‘Bloody Mary’. Her personal life was no happier – she married her cousin, Philip II of Spain, which made her even more unpopular, since Mary usually supported him in his military campaigns, against the will of the people. Most notably, as a result of his campaign against France (which she supported), the country lost Calais, England’s last remaining continental possession. Mary didn’t have children and her half-sister, Elizabeth succeeded her to begin her glorious reign.

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Queen Elizabeth – Elizabeth’s birth was perhaps the greatest disappointment in her father’s life – he had divorced Catherine of Aragon, severed ties with Rome and married Anne Boleyn to have a boy. When Elizabeth was 2 years old, Anne was accused of adultery and treason, and was executed. Elizabeth was proclaimed a bastard and lost her place in the line of the succession. Her father married his third wife, Jane Seymour, only 9 days after Anne’s execution. Jane gave birth to Henry’s only legitimate son, Prince Edward. After Edward’s death, he was succeeded by Mary. During her reign, Elizabeth was briefly imprisoned for taking part in Wyatt uprising. However Mary, who didn’t have children of her own, released her. The sisters had cold relationships. Mary’s death and Elizabeth's accession were greeted with joy in England. Her reign was troubled at first and she faced many threats. She wasn’t considered legitimate by Rome or by canon law and statute. The question of religion was vital – Elizabeth was a Moderate protestant. She had her problems with Mary, Queen of Scots, who claimed the English Throne herself. Spanish King Philip (Mary’s husband) sent the Armada against England. The Spanish attempt was defeated by the English fleet under Lord High Admiral Charles Howard, aided by inclement weather. The victory tremendously increased Elizabeth’s popularity. Elizabeth’s rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, had her own huge problems at home and Elizabeth could be relatively safe about her, until Mary landed in England, seeking asylum. For the following 20 years imprisoned, although her prison was a comfortable palace. However, Elizabeth faced a number of revolts, which were aimed to replace her with Mary. When it became apparent Mary took part in at least one of them, Elizabeth put Mary to trial, which subsequently found her guilty and Mary was executed. Elizabeth never married, hence one of her nicknames, ‘the Virgin Queen’. It is, however, rumoured she had long-term romance with Robert Dudley, and later with his son, Earl of Essex. Elizabeth’s 45 years of reign are referred to as the Elizabethan Era or the Golden Age. She supported Art and Literature and her reign saw William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson flourished; Francis Drake became the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe; Francis Bacon laid out his philosophical and political views; English colonisation of North America took place; the founding stone of England’s hegemony on Sea was laid. Elizabeth was a decisive ruler. Her favourite motto was Video Et Taceo (I see and keep silent). Elizabeth was a successful Monarch. She avoided the outbreak of religious and civil wars on English soil during her reign. She also proved to be one of the most popular Monarchs in English or British History, both during and after their lifetime and was voted the Best British Monarch ever in a recent BBC poll.

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Mary, Queen of Scots – Mary was the only daughter of King James V of Scotland and Marie de Guise. When her father learnt of her birth, he exclaimed, “The devil go with it! It came with a lass, it will pass with a lass!” He believed the birth of a girl marked the end of the Stuart dynasty. Mary’s mother arranged her engagement with Dauphin Francois, the heir of King Henry II and 5 years old girl moved to the French court. When Henry died, her husband became King. At the age of 16 she was Queen of Scotland, Queen Consort of France and heir to the English Throne. But soon Francis II died and Mary sailed back to Scotland. For a girl, raised in French court, Scotland seemed uncivilized and wild. Moreover, she was a Catholic Queen in a Protestant country. Several rebellions took place against her, but she managed to overcome them. Mary soon married Henry, Lord Darnley. The marriage was hardly a successful one though; Darnley was jealous of the Queen’s friendship with her secretary Riccio. Mary was pregnant with their first child, when Darnley killed Riccio in front of Mary. Darnley’s consecutive murder is believed to be Mary’s doing, although it was never proven. However, Mary was forced to abdicate and was imprisoned. She managed to escape to England. Elizabeth considered Mary’s claims to the English throne a serious threat, and so 18 years of confinement followed. Mary led a comfortable life however and the greatest part of the confinement was in the SheffieldCastle. Elizabeth was in a difficult situation since Mary allegedly took part in many of the plots against her but the last blow came when Mary took part in the Babington Plot. Mary denied the accusations and was spirited in her defense; however she was ultimately convicted of treason and was sentenced to beheading. Mary was not destined to become Queen of England; however her son James succeeded Elizabeth on the English Throne and thus united the English and Scottish Crowns.

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Henrietta Maria of France – Born to Henry IV of France and Marie Medici, Henrietta was separated from her parents at an early age – her father was killed soon after her birth, her mother was banned from the court when she was 9. At the age of 16, she married King Charles I of England. Her Catholic upbringing turned people against her and Henrietta was highly unpopular. At first her relationships with the King were not any better, however soon the couple developed genuine love and care for each other. They had 9 children together. When the civil war approached, Henrietta took part in national affairs and was active in seeking funds and support for her husband, but her main foreign allies were Catholics sources like Pope Urban VIII, which angered English. When the conflict began, she was in France and continued to raise money for the Royalist cause there. In 1643 she returned to England and joined Royalist forces; however the collapse of the King’s position led her to flee to France with her sons. Charles’s execution in 1649 left her destitute. She spent the following years in France, only returning to England after the Restoration. Henrietta’s influence over Charles II, her Catholic faith and her efforts to convert Charles and their children to Catholicism were among key factors that contributed to the English Revolution.

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Mary II – Mary was the eldest daughter of James, Duke of York (James II) and was raised in the protestant faith. She married William, Prince of Orange. Mary’s animated and personable nature made her popular with the Dutch people but the marriage itself was not the happiest one – none of their children survived. After the death of Charles II, Mary’s father became King James. He had a controversial religious policy and was viewed with great suspicion by the people. They only endured him since he would be succeeded by his Protestant daughter. Alarm amongst Protestants increased when James’s second wife gave birth to a son, who would be raised a Roman Catholic. William and Mary were secretly requested to come to England with an army. The Dutch Army didn’t even have to fight on the English soil; English Army and Navy went over to William. The Parliament offered Mary to become a sole Monarch, however loyal to her husband, she refused. The Parliament then offered William and Mary to become joint Monarchs. The Parliament passed one of the most important constitutional documents in English History, the Bill of Rights, which established restrictions on the Royal Prerogative. Mary did not wield power during most of her reign, instead ceding it to her husband. She did, however, govern the realms when William was engaged in military campaigns and proved a firm ruler. After her death William, who had grown increasingly to rely on Mary, was devastated, reportedly saying ‘from being the happiest I am now going to be the miserablest creature on Earth’.

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Caroline of Ansbach – As a beautiful, intelligent and attractive woman, Caroline, the daughter of the Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, was a much sought-after bride. She had a chance to become Queen of Spain, but declined the proposal, since she would have to renounce her protestant faith. Shortly afterwards, she met and married George, the son of the Elector of Hanover, who would later become heir to the British Throne. After her husband’s father accession to the throne as George I, Caroline was the most important woman in the Kingdom. Caroline played quite a big role in the political life of the country; she was a close friend of Sir Robert Walpole (Prime Minister both under George I and George II’s reigns), who would later play a crucial role in the process of reconciliation of the King and Prince of Wales. Caroline’s mind far outstripped George’s. As a young woman, she corresponded with Gottfried Leibniz. Later, she initiated the Leibniz-Clarke correspondence, arguably the most important of all 18th century philosophy of physics discussion. As a Queen, Caroline held a powerful position; she was made Guardian of the Kingdom of Great Britain, and His Majesty’s Lieutenant within the same during His Majesty’s absence, this acting as a Regent, when George II was not in the country. Caroline was probably one of the most important consorts in British History, alongside Prince Albert.

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Caroline of Brunswick – Caroline married Prince George, the eldest son of King George III and future King George IV but the union proved to be disastrous – both Caroline and George had immense dislike for each other and lived separately. Caroline spent most of the time in the private residence. Caroline and George’s only daughter, Princess Charlotte-Augusta, died shortly after giving birth to a still-born son. Caroline spent most of the time in her native Brunswick but went back to England after her husband’s accession to the Throne. Despite the King’s best attempts, Caroline retained a very strong popularity amongst the masses, and therefore considerable power in spite of his dislike for her. Caroline died only one day before the coronation, convinced she had been poisoned. Though she legally remained Queen Consort of the United Kingdom, she was buried in Brunswick. On her tomb, it is written “Here lays Caroline, the Injured Queen of England”.

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Queen Victoria – Alexandrina Victoria was the Queen of the Great Britain and Ireland and the first Empress of India. Her reign lasted almost 64 years, thus being the longest-serving British Monarch. Even thought Victoria was the only daughter of the fourth son of King George III, lack of heirs made her heir Presumptive during the reign of her uncle, King William. Soon after she became Queen, she proposed to her cousin, Prince Albert. The marriage was a very happy one and Prince Albert proved a great support for Victoria. The couple had 9 children. Victoria made the Parliament grant Prince Albert the title of the Prince Consort, to give him more substantial and certain role. When Prince Albert died of typhoid fever, after 21 years of happy marriage, the Queen was devastated. She entered a state of mourning and wore black for the remainder of her life. Thought at first that made her unpopular among the people, who wanted to see their Queen more often, later she became immensely popular once more. Queen Victoria’s reign marked the gradual establishment of modern constitutional Monarchy. Her monarchy became more symbolic than political; it placed a strong emphasis on morality and family values. Victoria’s reign created for